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Argumentative turn
The “argumentative turn" refers to a group of different approaches in policy-analysis and planning that emphasize the increased relevance of argumentation, language and deliberation in policy-making. Inspired by the “linguistic turn” in the field of humanities, it was developed as an alternative to the epistemological limitations of “neo-positivist” policy analysis and its underlying technocratic understanding of the decision-making process. The argumentative approach systematically integrates empirical and normative questions into a methodological framework oriented towards the analysis of policy deliberation. It is sensitive to the situative context and the multiple kinds of knowledge practices involved in each stage of the policy process, drawing attention to different forms of argumentation, persuasion and justification.
The term “argumentative turn” was introduced by Frank Fischer and John Forester in the introduction to their edited volume “The argumentative turn in policy analysis and planning”, published in 1993, assembling a group of different approaches towards policy analysis that share an emphasis on the importance of language, meaning, rhetoric and values as key features in the analysis of policy-making and planning.〔Fischer and Forester 1993〕 As a shift away from the positivistic and technocratic implications of the dominant empirical approach to problem-solving, the argumentative turn tries to offer an alternative perspective towards policy inquiry. Instead of focusing exclusively on empiricist law-like logical inference and causal explanation, the post-empiricist approach highlights numerous forms of social research practices, thereby not disqualifying the search for empirically valid data, but embedding scientific expertise into a meaningful social context. The argumentative approach therefore rejects the assumption that policy analysis can be a value-free, technical project, since it always involves complex combinations of descriptive and normative elements.〔〔Fischer and Gottweis 2012〕 As a commitment to deliberative and participatory conceptions of democracy, the argumentative perspective also rejects a top-down understanding of governance, testifying to the dynamic exchange between public and private interests and the important role of experts in the complex processes of policy-making. The policy-analyst is no longer concerned with the improvement of political performance, but tries to stimulate the political process of policy deliberation, thereby promoting communicative competences and social learning.〔〔〔Fischer 2007, p. 225〕〔Fischer 2003b, p. 224〕
== Emergence of the argumentative approach ==
The argumentative approach towards policy analysis grew out of a disappointment with the prevailing intellectual setting, since the 60s largely dominated by the “rational project” of neo-positivist policital science, and its tendency to mask political and bureaucratic interests behind an ideology of science as a value free project.〔Fischer 2003a, p. 14〕 In 1989, Giandomenico Majone published ‘Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in Policy Analysis’ that together with Deborah Stone’s “Policy Paradox” (1988) and John S. Dryzek’s “Discursive Democracy” (1990) became key texts in the formative process of the new argumentative perspective on policy analysis. But it was not until Frank Fischer and John Forester proclaimed “The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning” (1993) that argumentative policy analysis became a distinctive approach with a well defined research agenda, which moved language, argumentation and rhetoric to the center of attention.〔Gottweis 2006, p. 463〕 Although other approaches to policy analysis also highlighted the important role of ideas,〔Hall 1993〕 they tended to conceptualize language only as one variable next to others, thereby neglecting its constitutive role in the construction of social reality. The argumentative approach on the other hand puts a more sophisticated emphasis and a deeper understanding to important aspects of language and discourse in the policy process. Ideas and discourse are not only means for actors trying to achieve particular ends, but they have a force of their own, especially in combination with relations of power, since they both carry knowledge and frame social reality.〔Fischer 2003a〕
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